h Sample Vision Statement Prompts Step 1 of 3 33% Email for sending your finished plan:* For which color range are you making this plan? Blue Green Tangerine Pink Goal Improve literacy in elementary school. Improve reading in middle and high school Increase math achievement Reduce the dropout rate Increase the graduation rate Prepare more students to be college ready Increase interest in and preparedness for STEM careers Close achievement gaps Increase equity and access Select or write a measurable ojective. By the end of the year, the percentage of students in the pink range of the Tower of Hope range will be reduced by 10%. Select or write a measurable ojective. By the end of the year, 30% of the students who were in the tanagerine range of the Tower of Hope category will be in either the green or the blue. Select or write a measurable ojective. By the end of the year, 30% of the students who were in the green Tower of Hope category will be in the blue. Select or write a measurable ojective. By the end of the year, 90% of the students who were in the blue Tower of Hope category will have completed an Honors, AP, or IB course. By the end of the year, 90% of the students who were in the blue Tower of Hope category will have applied to a college and completed FASFA. Will you survey students to collect perecption data? Yes No Which survey item categories will you use to collect perception data? Bonding With School Bullying at School Bullying and Safety Mentors Students’ Primary Needs School Climate Perception Study Habits Confidence Goal Setting Responsibility Academic Self Control Attitudes About Mistakes Learning Attitude Testing Attitude Time Management Select the 21st century skills you will survey, if any. Team work Commuication Technology Use Select the services you will provide One-on-one tutoring Additional support during school day Small group on study skills Small group on bullying Small group on time management Connect to community resources Refer to health and human services resources Enroll in program for additional literacy support Enroll in program for additional math support Provide academic supplies, like backpack of resources Mentoring Hand schedule to align with best-fit teacher Ten positive contacts with student and family Credit recovery Summer camp for remedial support Placement in alternative learning setting Other Describe other services.Select the services you will provide One-on-one tutoring Additional support during school day Small group on study skills Small group on bullying Small group on time management Connect to community resources Enroll in rigorous courses with support Transcript review, and enroll in "college path." Provide academic supplies, like backpack of resources Mentoring Hand schedule to align with best-fit teacher Ten positive contacts with student and family Credit recovery Summer camp for enrichment Other Please list other services.Select the services you will provide. Review transcripts for more rigorous course placement, with support Enroll in online Honors or AP courses if not available. Encourage dual enrollment, if available. Help enroll in rigorous enriched academic activities Enriched academic summer camp ACT/SAT Prep course Career awareness activities Help complete college applications Assist with FASFA completion Provide information about financial aid for college College visit Other List other services.How will you deliver the services? Check all that apply. During school Before school After school With certified teachers With volunteers Summer Online Face-to-Face Providing transportation Parents will be involved Other Select up to four of the following Research Nuggets that are relevant to your plan. Parents and teachers can foster a growth mind-set in children through praising effort (rather than intelligence or innate ability), sharing success stories that emphasize hard work and love of learning (great mathematicians fell in love with math and developed the skills rather than were born geniuses), and likening the brain to a learning machine (teaching that the brain is like a muscle that gets stronger with use) (Dweck, 2007). Dweck, C. (2007). The secret to raising smart kids. Scientific American Mind, (December 2007), 37–43. Parents and school staff can work with the community to help pass laws and policies that allow parents to take off work for school functions (National Education Association, 2008). National Education Association. (2008). Parent, family, community involvement in education. Washington DC. Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/PB11_ParentInvolvement08.pdf “Although the research unequivocally affirms the positive and long-lasting effects of parent, family, and community involvement on student learning, this data is often overlooked in local, state, and national discussions about raising student achievement and closing achievement gaps. Education reform efforts that focus solely on classrooms and schools are leaving out critical factors essential for long-term success” (National Education Association, 2008). National Education Association. (2008). Parent, family, community involvement in education. Washington DC. Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/PB11_ParentInvolvement08.pdf Good parental involvement in schools with high numbers of students from both sides of the economic spectrum include parents who: * want the school to be an asset to the entire community, and not just to their child. * volunteer for services and bring resources with a goal to benefit the entire school.* celebrate the diversity and believe all the children are enriched by it.* market the school, not in terms to get more people “like themselves” to enroll their children, but to get all parents to enroll their children (Cucchiara & Horvat, 2009).Cucchiara, M. B., & Horvat, E. M. (2009). Perils and promises: Middle-class parental involvement in urban schools. American Educational Research Journal, 46(4), 974–1004. Retrieved from http://peabodyurbanseminar.wikispaces.com/file/view/middle+class+parent+participation.pdf Many parents are unaware or unconcerned about their children’s course placement. Only 58% of parents of sixth grade students indicated they knew how placement was determined, and 58% believed placement was important. For parents of fifth grade students, only 8% believed that placement was important. More than half (55%) of the parents of sixth grade students either didn’t know their role or believed they had no role in their children’s placement. Parents can actually play a role in their children’s placement by advocating for their placement in higher level courses if they believe it is appropriate (Akos, Shoffner, & Ellis, 2007). Akos, P., Shoffner, M., & Ellis, M. (2007). Mathematics placement and the transition to middle school. Professional School Counseling. Retrieved from http://www.schoolcounselor.org/files/10-3-238 Akos.pdf Students will comprehend and retain what they have read better if they anticipate having to provide a summary afterward (Reading A-Z, 2010). Reading A-Z. (2010). Reading and Word Attack Strategies. Retrieved from http://www.readinga-z.com/more/reading_strat.html Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DR-TA) is a teaching strategy that guides students in making predictions about a text and then reading to confirm or refute their predictions. This is an excellent method of teaching reading to beginning students (Family Education Network, n.d.) Family Education Network. (n.d.). Teaching Strategies for Reading. Retrieved from http://www.teachervision.fen.com/reading/resource/48646.html From first to third grade, students learn to read. Beyond third grade, they are expected to read to learn. Those who have failed to learn to read are likely to fall behind in all their subjects, putting them on a downward spiral that often leads to dropping out (Reach Potential Movement, n.d.). Reach Potential Movement. (n.d.). A dream in every child’s heart and a diploma in every youth's hand. Retrieved from http://rpmovement.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/Literacy-Drop-Out-Incarceration-Rates.pdf Students who are not reading at grade level will benefit greatly from one-on-one tutoring (Hammond & Reimer, 2006) Hammond, C., & Reimer, M. (2006). Essential elements of quality after-school programs. Clemson, SC: National Dropout Prevention Center/Network. Retrieved February 17, 2008 at http://www.dropoutprevention.org/pubs/pdfs/Essential_Elements_of_Quality_AfterSchool_Programs.pdf. Retrieved from http://www.portlandchildrenslevy.org/rfi_archives/National Drop Out Prevention Study.Best Practices for Quality After School Programs.pdf The ability to identify the elements of a story (plot, characters, setting, and theme) aids in reading comprehension, leads to a deeper understanding and appreciation of stories, and helps students learn to write stories of their own (Family Education Network, n.d.).Family Education Network. (n.d.). Teaching Strategies for Reading. Retrieved from http://www.teachervision.fen.com/reading/resource/48646.html Improving students’ vocabularies by making connections among words and exposing students to content-related words can positively affect their reading abilities (Neuman & Wright, 2014). Neuman, S. B., & Wright, T. S. (2014). The magic of words: Teaching vocabulary in the early childhood classroom. American Educator, 38(2). Retrieved from http://www.aft.org/periodical/american-educator/summer-2014/magic-words Silent reading in the classroom does not help struggling readers. To improve the reading fluency of struggling readers, teachers should provide support and guided oral reading (Hasbrouck, 2006). Hasbrouck, J. (2006). Drop everything and read—but how? For students who are not yet fluent, silent reading is not the best use of classroom time. American Educator, 30(2). Retrieved from http://sjcoertac.org/docs/Fluency&SSR-Hasbrouck-892006120140PM.pdf To encourage critical reading, teachers should ask students questions about the text before, during, and after they read. This method is useful for most subjects, from reading to social studies, and is an excellent way to structure literature homework (Family Education Network, n.d.). Family Education Network. (n.d.). Teaching Strategies for Reading. Retrieved from http://www.teachervision.fen.com/reading/resource/48646.html Difficulty of reading materials are often arbitrary. In a North Carolina State University study, researchers found that seven of eight readability formulas were less than 49% accurate, with the worst being only 17% accurate. It is better to know your students and their capabilities (Begeny & Greene, 2014). Begeny, J. C., & Greene, D. J. (2014). Can readability formulas be used to successfully gauge difficulty of reading materials? Psychology in the Schools, 51(2), 198–215. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.21740/abstract Providing teachers with access to and training on how to use student performance data, classroom management tools, and connections with other teachers can all improve student learning (Achieve Inc., 2008). Achieve Inc. (2008). Closing the Expectations Gap 2008: An annual 50-state progress report on the alignment of high school policies and demands of college and work. Retrieved from http://www.achieve.org/files/50-state-2008-final02-25-08.pdf Improving students’ vocabularies by making connections among words and exposing students to content-related words can positively affect their reading abilities (Neuman & Wright, 2014). Neuman, S. B., & Wright, T. S. (2014). The magic of words: Teaching vocabulary in the early childhood classroom. American Educator, 38(2). Retrieved from http://www.aft.org/periodical/american-educator/summer-2014/magic-words For mentoring to be effective, relationships between mentor and mentee should last at least 12 months and mentors should meet with mentees at least one hour each week (Spencer, 2006).Spencer, R. (2006). Understanding the mentor process between adolescents and adults. Youth & Society, 34, 598–632. Retrieved from http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_1222.pdf Although mentors are frequently matched to mentees by race, research suggests there are few, if any, differences in same-race matches and different-race matches. Some evidence indicates that matching based on similar interests may have more positive outcomes (Liang & West, 2007; Spencer, 2006). Liang, B., & West, J. (2007). Youth mentoring: Do race and ethnicity really matter? Research in Action, 9, 1–28. Retrieved from http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_390.pdf ; Spencer, R. (2006). Understanding the mentor process between adolescents and adults. Youth & Society, 34, 598–632. Retrieved from http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_1222.pdf Federal Mentoring Council (FMC) research shows that the key elements of mentoring programs that lead to greater impacts include mentors with previous relevant experience who are carefully trained and supported. Mentors should also have structured activities with mentees, and the mentoring programs should be monitored for early problem detection (United States Department of Labor, 2011). United States Department of Labor. (2011). Notice of Availability of Funds and Solicitation for Grants Application under the Young Parents Demonstration. Retrieved from http://www.doleta.gov/grants/pdf/SGA-DFA-PY-10-12-YOUNG-PARENTS-DEMO-FINAL.pdf Middle school students are most in need of adult bonds, as this is usually the first time they have not had one, primary teacher. Although mentors for every child may not be possible, schools should try to increase the likelihood of bonding with an adult by assigning home rooms to anchor students, providing counselors, and having multiyear teacher assignments (Pianta, 2000). Pianta, R. C. (2000). Enhancing relationships between children and teachers. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association. Retrieved from http://ebook30.com/science/psychology-behavior/201095/robert-c.-pianta-enhancing-relationships-between-children-and-teachers.html According to the Hamilton Fish Institute on School and Community Violence and the National Mentoring Center, the 10 most important pieces of advice for a successful mentor are: 1. Be a friend. 2. Have realistic goals and expectations. 3. Have fun together. 4. Give your mentee voice and choice in deciding on activities. 5. Be positive. 6. Let your mentee have much of the control over what the two of you talk about—and how you talk about it. 7. Listen. 8. Respect the trust your mentee places in you. 9. Remember that your relationship is with the youth, not the youth’s parent. 10. Remember that you are responsible for building the relationship. (Garringer & Jucovy, 2008)Garringer, M., & Jucovy, L. (2008). Building relationships: A guide for new mentors. Retrieved from http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_345.pdf Youth who are paired with mentors for a year or more have been found to have improved academic, psychosocial, and behavioral outcomes (Rhodes, 2001) Rhodes, J. E. (2001). Youth Mentoring in Perspective. The Center. Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/learningmentors/youth_mentoring_in_perspective.htm Examples abound of school systems that expect all of their students to perform rigorous coursework. The outcomes show the gap can be narrowed—and even eliminated—when all students, regardless of race or socioeconomic status, are held to high standards (Achieve Inc., 2008; Bromberg & Theokas, 2014; Education Trust, 2006; Garrity, 2004; Singleton & Linton, 2006; Theokas & Saaris, 2013; Van den Bergh, Denessen, Hornstra, & Voeten, 2010). Achieve Inc. (2008). Closing the Expectations Gap 2008: An annual 50-state progress report on the alignment of high school policies and demands of college and work. Retrieved from http://www.achieve.org/files/50-state-2008-final02-25-08.pdf ;Bromberg, M., & Theokas, C. (2014). Falling out of the lead: Following high achievers through high school and beyond. Education Trust: Shattering Expectation Series. Washington D.C. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/publications/files/FallingOutoftheLead.pdf ; Education Trust. (2006). Yes we can: Telling truths and dispelling myths about race and education in America. Washington, DC: The Education Trust. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/publications/files/YesWeCan.pdf ; Garrity, D. (2004). Detracking with vigilance: By opening the high-level doors to all, Rockville Centre closes the gap in achievement and diplomas. The School Administrator. Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0JSD/is_7_61/ai_n6172415/ ; Singleton, G., & Linton, C. (2006). Courageous Conversations About Race: A Field Guide for Achieving Equity in Schools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. ; Theokas, C., & Saaris, R. (2013). Finding America’s missing AP and IB students. Washington, D.C. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/Missing_Students.pdf ; Van den Bergh, L., Denessen, E., Hornstra, L., & Voeten, M. (2010). The implicit prejudiced attitude of teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 47(2), 497–527. The educational achievement gap in the United States has imposed upon us a permanent national recession. Our Gross Domestic Product (GDP) would be trillions of dollars more than it is if we could close this gap (McKinsey & Company, 2009) McKinsey & Company, S. S. O. (2009). The economic impact of the achievement gap in America’s schools. Retrieved from http://silvergiving.org/system/files/achievement_gap_report.pdf For individuals who are not given proper access to a rigorous education, the consequences include lower wage earnings, poorer health, and a higher probability of incarceration (McKinsey & Company, 2009). McKinsey & Company, S. S. O. (2009). The economic impact of the achievement gap in America’s schools. Retrieved from http://silvergiving.org/system/files/achievement_gap_report.pdf School systems continue to associate socio-economic status and race with academic abilities. Placing high-achieving minority students on the low track is often done as the soft prejudice of low expectations by educators who mean well. Nationally, enrollment in advanced courses has become a status symbol for the elite and people with social power. In recent years, schools have tried to promote equity while preserving privilege, and as a result have developed ways of making course enrollment decisions that convey to low-income and minority students that they would not benefit from or be successful in these courses (Labaree, 2012). The result continues to be the downward trajectory of these students’ academic pathways, which can ultimately affect their careers and their livelihood. Labaree, D. F. (2012). School Syndrome: Understanding the USA’s magical belief that schooling can somehow improve society, promote access, and preserve advantage. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 44(2), 143–163. Retrieved from http://www.stanford.edu/~dlabaree/publication2011/School_Syndrome.pdf Students with similar 3rd grade math and reading scores are more likely to be placed in advanced classes if they come from households with high incomes (Cratty, 2014) Cratty, D. (2014). Do 3rd grade math scores determine students’ futures? A statewide analysis of college readiness and the income achievement gap. People tend to under-perform when assigned a task that they believe their own demographic group performs inferiorly compared to other groups (Haslam, Salvatore, Kessler, & Reicher, 2008). The demographic groups are known as “social identity contingencies” in this respect. For example, Black, female, old, and even White male are examples of “social identity contingencies” (Purdie-Vaughns, Steele, Davies, Ditlmann, & Crosby, 2008). Haslam, S. A., Salvatore, J., Kessler, T., & Reicher, S. D. (2008). The social psychology of success. Scientific American Mind, May/April, 24–31.; Purdie-Vaughns, V., Steele, C. M., Davies, P. G., Ditlmann, R., & Crosby, J. R. (2008). Social identity contingencies: How diversity cues signal threat or safety for African Americans in mainstream institutions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(4), 615–630. People who are made aware of negative stereotypes about their groups’ ability to perform certain tasks tend to suffer more anxiety, stress, and self-doubt if asked to perform any of those tasks, whether the tasks are mental or physical (Haslam, Salvatore, Kessler, & Reicher, 2008; Osborne, 2006). Haslam, S. A., Salvatore, J., Kessler, T., & Reicher, S. D. (2008). The social psychology of success. Scientific American Mind, May/April, 24–31. Settings can be seen as “safe” or "threatening” to groups with social identity contingencies. For example, minorities in work places or schools which celebrate diversity will more likely feel safe. Lone females in a math or science class will more likely feel threatened. Distrust of a setting can affect performance and achievement (Davies, Spencer, & Steele, 2005; Purdie-Vaughns, Steele, Davies, Ditlmann, & Crosby, 2008). Davies, P. G., Spencer, S. J., & Steele, C. M. (2005). Clearing the air: Identity safety moderates the effects of stereotype threat on women’s leadership aspirations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.sowi.uni-mannheim.de/lssozpsych/p/pdf/pdfFS07/4DaviesSteeleSpencer.pdf; Purdie-Vaughns, V., Steele, C. M., Davies, P. G., Ditlmann, R., & Crosby, J. R. (2008). Social identity contingencies: How diversity cues signal threat or safety for African Americans in mainstream institutions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(4), 615–630. Every year, in America’s high schools, over half a million low-income and minority students who are eligible for AP and IB (International Baccalaureate) classes do not enroll in these classes (Theokas & Saaris, 2013). Theokas, C., & Saaris, R. (2013). Finding America’s missing AP and IB students. Washington, D.C. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/Missing_Students.pdf Students from low-income households are more likely than their peers to be assigned to low tracks, regardless of their demonstrated academic ability. This low tracking begins as early as third grade. Consequently, a third grade student from a low-income household who scores average on a standardized state test is far less likely to take college prep math in high school than a third grader from a high-income household who scores average on the same test (40% vs. 75%) (Cratty, 2014). Cratty, D. (2014). Do 3rd grade math scores determine students’ futures? A statewide analysis of college readiness and the income achievement gap. A North Carolina study examined course-taking patterns among eighth-grade students who scored at or above grade level on math EOG test. Among these students, those who enrolled in eighth-grade Algebra were three times more likely to take chemistry and physics in high school compared with the students who waited to enroll in ninth-grade Algebra. Among the students who scored Level III (at grade level), the students who enrolled in eighth-grade Algebra were 55 times more likely to take chemistry and physics in high school (SAS Institute, 2009). SAS Institute. (2009). Mathematics talent identification and reclamation in Moore County School District. Raleigh, NC. One study found that dropping out is often a long-term, cumulative process, with risk factors present as early as 6th grade predicting whether a student completes school. In Philadelphia, it was found that a 6th grader with even one of the following four signals had at least a three in four chance of dropping out of high school: • A final grade of F in mathematics • A final grade of F in English • Attendance below 80 percent for the year • A final “unsatisfactory” behavior mark in at least one class (Neild, Balfanz, & Herzog, 2007). Neild, R. C., Balfanz, R., & Herzog, L. (2007). An early warning system. Educational Leadership. Retrieved from: http://www.jhsph.edu/preventyouthviolence/Test/An early warning system.pdf Throughout the country, schools that offer AP course enrollment make them more available to white students and students from high socioeconomic backgrounds than to Black, Latino, and low-income students (Theokas & Saaris, 2013) Theokas, C., & Saaris, R. (2013). Finding America’s missing AP and IB students. Washington, D.C. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/Missing_Students.pdf Schools which demonstrate frequent use of suspension have higher rates of dropouts than other schools (Lehr, Johnson, Bremer, Cosio, & Thompson, 2004). Lehr, C. A., Johnson, D. R., Bremer, C. D., Cosio, A., & Thompson, M. (2004). Essential tools: Increasing rates of school completion: Moving from policy and research to practice: A manual for policymakers, administrators, and educators. Minneapolis, MN: National Center on Secondary Education and Transition. Retrieved from http://www.ncset.org/publications/essentialtools/dropout/dropout.pdf High-achievers, regardless of race or socioeconomic status, take similar course loads in high school, unless they attend schools offering advanced courses like calculus. In these schools, access to the advanced courses is more restricted for Black and Latino high-achievers and high achievers from the low socioeconomic group (Bromberg & Theokas, 2014). Bromberg, M., & Theokas, C. (2014). Falling out of the lead: Following high achievers through high school and beyond. Education Trust: Shattering Expectation Series. Washington D.C. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/publications/files/FallingOutoftheLead.pdf Teachers assign lower grades to high-achieving students of color and low-SES students than they do to high-achieving white and high-SES students. Some research suggests that teachers perceive the behavior, work habits, and study habits of the former group to be worse than the latter group’s habits. Student-reported behavior and study habits don’t support this perception. A 2007 study found that the teachers’ misperception accounted for most of the gap in GPAs among races in the high-achieving students (Bromberg & Theokas, 2014) Bromberg, M., & Theokas, C. (2014). Falling out of the lead: Following high achievers through high school and beyond. Education Trust: Shattering Expectation Series. Washington D.C. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/publications/files/FallingOutoftheLead.pdf High-achieving white students are twice as likely to receive an A average than are high-achieving Black students. High-achieving Black and Latino students are almost twice as likely to receive a C average or lower than are their white counterparts (Bromberg & Theokas, 2014). Bromberg, M., & Theokas, C. (2014). Falling out of the lead: Following high achievers through high school and beyond. Education Trust: Shattering Expectation Series. Washington D.C. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/publications/files/FallingOutoftheLead.pdf Only 29% of high-achieving low socioeconomic students receive an A average in their course grades, while 46% of the high-achieving high socioeconomic students receive A averages (Bromberg & Theokas, 2014). Bromberg, M., & Theokas, C. (2014). Falling out of the lead: Following high achievers through high school and beyond. Education Trust: Shattering Expectation Series. Washington D.C. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/publications/files/FallingOutoftheLead.pdf Every year, in America’s high schools, over half a million low-income and minority students who are eligible for AP and IB (International Baccalaureate) classes do not enroll in these classes (Theokas & Saaris, 2013). Theokas, C., & Saaris, R. (2013). Finding America’s missing AP and IB students. Washington, D.C. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/Missing_Students.pdf In one North Carolina commissioned study in which middle school students who had demonstrated high achievement in math were reassigned to advanced math classes, the school saw a significant reduction in total suspensions the following school year (Stiff & Johnson, 2011; Stiff, Johnson, & Akos, 2011)Stiff, L. V, & Johnson, J. L. (2011). Mathematical reasoning and sense making begins with the opportunity to learn. In M. E. Strutchens & J. R. Quander (Eds.), Focus in high school mathematics: Fostering reasoning and sense making for all students (pp. 85–100). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Inc. Retrieved from http://www.edstaranalytics.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/StiffJohnson2011Opportunity_To_Learn.pdf; Stiff, L. V., Johnson, J. L., & Akos, P. (2011). Examining what we know for sure: Tracking in middle grades mathematics. In W. F. Tate, K. D. King, & C. R. Anderson (Eds.), Disrupting tradition: Research and practice pathways in mathematics education (1st ed., pp. 63–75). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Inc. Common factors that cause teens to join gangs include the availability of drugs and alcohol, unstable living conditions, parents who tolerate or commit violence, failing or falling behind in school, and hanging out with delinquents (Snyder & Sickmund, 2006) Snyder, H. N., & Sickmund, M. (2006). Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 2006 National Report. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Retrieved June 10, 2008 at http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org/ojstatbb/nr2006/downloads/chapter3.pdf. Retrieved from http://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/nr2006/downloads/NR2006.pdf Black students are expelled or suspended at a rate three times higher than their white classmates. Black boys receive the most suspensions (two-thirds), but black girls are suspended more than any other race of girls, and more than most boys overall. Latino and black students make up more than half the students who are arrested at school or referred to law enforcement (Hefling, 2014).Hefling, K. (2014, March 1). Disparities remain in America’s schools. Associated Press. Washington DC. Retrieved from http://www.bigstory.ap.org/article/disparities-remain-americas-schools Teens are most likely to commit violent crimes between 3 pm and 7 pm. Six times as many crimes are committed during these hours than between 10 pm and 6 am (Snyder & Sickmund, 2006). Snyder, H. N., & Sickmund, M. (2006). Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 2006 National Report. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Retrieved June 10, 2008 at http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org/ojstatbb/nr2006/downloads/chapter3.pdf. Retrieved from http://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/nr2006/downloads/NR2006.pdf Teens who participate in after-school activities, particularly during the “dangerous” hours of 3 pm to 7 pm, are more than three times less likely to use marijuana than teens who are left unsupervised (4% compared to 14%) (Ericson, 2001). Ericson, N. (2001). OJJDP Fact Sheet: The YMCA’s Teen Action Agenda. U.S. Department of Justice; Office of Justice Programs; Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Retrieved on line on February 6, 2008 at http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/fs200114.pdf. Retrieved from http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/fs200114.pdf Teens who volunteer for a community service for a semester or more are more optimistic about their futures (Corporation for National Community Service, 2006) Corporation for National Community Service. (2006). Educating for Active Citizenship: Service-Learning, School-Based Service, and Civic Engagement. Brief 2 in the Youth Helping America Series. Washington, DC. Retrieved February 5, 2008 at http://www.nationalservice.gov/pdf/06_0323_SL_briefing.pdf. Retrieved from http://www.nationalservice.gov/pdf/06_0323_SL_briefing.pdf Schools which demonstrate frequent use of suspension have higher rates of dropouts than other schools (Lehr et al., 2004). Lehr, C. A., Johnson, D. R., Bremer, C. D., Cosio, A., & Thompson, M. (2004). Essential tools: Increasing rates of school completion: Moving from policy and research to practice: A manual for policymakers, administrators, and educators. Minneapolis, MN: National Center on Secondary Education and Transition. Retrieved from http://www.ncset.org/publications/essentialtools/dropout/dropout.pdf Reading aloud to students has been found to expand their imaginations, provide new knowledge, support language acquisition, build vocabulary, and promote reading as a worthwhile, enjoyable activity (Family Education Network, n.d.). Family Education Network. (n.d.). Teaching Strategies for Reading. Retrieved from http://www.teachervision.fen.com/reading/resource/48646.html For millennial children, the gap in earnings between those who graduated from college and those who did not grows wider every year, and has doubled over the last few decades. The median annual earnings for full-time workers in 2012 dollars was $45,500 for people with bachelor's degrees, and $28,000 for those with only a high school diploma. The benefits of college extend beyond earnings. College educated people are much more likely to see themselves on a career path, rather than "getting by" in a menial job (Caumont, 2014). Caumont, A. (2014). 6 key findings about going to college. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/02/11/6-key-findings-about-going-to-college/ In North Carolina, a study of a large school system’s eighth and ninth grade students determined that ninth grade dropouts are more likely than the general population of students to possess at least one of three factors: • Retention in a grade or failing to have enough credits to enter tenth grade • Scoring below grade level on 8th grade EOG Math • A long-term suspension (Sparks, Johnson, & Akos, 2010). Sparks, E., Johnson, J. L., & Akos, P. (2010). Dropouts: Finding the needles in the haystack. Educational Leadership. Retrieved from http://www.educationnews.org/ed_reports/edu_assoc_articles/50322.html Low attendance during the first 30 days of 9th grade is a more powerful predictor than any 8th grade factor for failing 9th grade, including test scores, age and academic failure (Neild & Balfanz, 2006). Neild, R. C., & Balfanz, R. (2006). An extreme degree of difficulty: The educational demographics of urban neighborhood high schools. Graduate School of Education: GSE Publications, University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved from http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1025&context=gse_pubs Although research provides some guidelines, who drops out and why they drop out will vary not only across states and districts, but within school districts. To implement effective dropout prevention strategies, we must first learn whom to target in the particular problem area (Ahn, Wyant, Bonneau, & Owen, 2008). Ahn, T., Wyant, C., Bonneau, K., & Owen, J. (2008). Dropout Prevention: Strategies for improving high school graduation rates: A briefing report prepared for the North Carolina Family Impact Seminar. Center for Child and Family Policy. Retrieved from http://www.familyimpactseminars.org/s_ncfis04report.pdf Students who repeated an early grade—from kindergarten through fourth grade—were almost 5 times as likely to drop out of school as those who had not repeated a grade. And students who had repeated a grade from fifth through eighth grade were almost 11 times more likely to drop out (Kaufman & Bradbury, 1992)Kaufman, P., & Bradbury, D. (1992). Characteristics of at-risk students in NELS:88. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs92/92042.pdf The difference between being taught by a teacher in the top quartile of the talent pool and a teacher from the bottom quartile is about three months of instruction per year (Miller & Chait, 2008). Miller, R., & Chait, R. (2008). Teacher turnover, tenure policies, and the distribution of teacher quality: Can high-poverty schools catch a break? Center for American Progress. Retrieved from http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2008/12/teacher_attrition.html Financial incentives for effective teachers work (Chait, 2009). Chait, R. (2009). Ensuring effective teachers for all students: Six state strategies for attracting and retaining effective teachers in high-poverty and high-minority schools. Retrieved from http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2009/05/pdf/teacher_effectiveness.pdf High school counselors often advise low-income, high-achieving students to attend schools with low selectivity standards, despite evidence that shows they are less likely to graduate from these schools than they would schools with higher selectivity (Wyner, Bridgeland, & DiIulio, 2007) Wyner, J. S., Bridgeland, J. M., & DiIulio Jr., J. J. (2007). Achievement trap: How America is failing millions of high-achieving students from low-income families. Jack Kent Cooke Foundation, Civic Enterprises, LLC. Retrieved from http://www.nagc.org/uploadedFiles/Advocacy_and_Legislation/Equity_and_Excellence/Achievement_Trap (JKC).pdf The more selective the college, the more likely low-income, high-achieving students will graduate. Their graduation rates drop from 90% to 56% as school enrollment selectivity decreases. About 80% of high-income students graduate, regardless of the college they attend (Wyner, Bridgeland, & DiIulio, 2007). Wyner, J. S., Bridgeland, J. M., & DiIulio Jr., J. J. (2007). Achievement trap: How America is failing millions of high-achieving students from low-income families. Jack Kent Cooke Foundation, Civic Enterprises, LLC. Retrieved from http://www.nagc.org/uploadedFiles/Advocacy_and_Legislation/Equity_and_Excellence/Achievement_Trap (JKC).pdf African American teenagers know they are stigmatized as being intellectually inferior, and consequently, they carry a “burden of suspicion,” which affects their self-confidence, performance, and aspirations (Southern Poverty Law Center, n.d.-b).Southern Poverty Law Center. (2010). How stereotypes undermine test scores. Retrieved from http://www.tolerance.org/activity/how-stereotypes-undermine-test-scores Implicit prejudice is so prevalent in our classrooms, many researchers believe racial minorities and white students in the same classrooms are receiving different educations (Southern Poverty Law Center, n.d.-b). Southern Poverty Law Center. (2010). How stereotypes undermine test scores. Retrieved from http://www.tolerance.org/activity/how-stereotypes-undermine-test-scores Females who are unaware that people generally think of them as being worse at complex math than males will perform significantly better on math tests than females who are aware of the stereotype (Haslam, Salvatore, Kessler, & Reicher, 2008; Osborne, 2006) Haslam, S. A., Salvatore, J., Kessler, T., & Reicher, S. D. (2008). The social psychology of success. Scientific American Mind, May/April, 24–31.; Osborne, J. W. (2006). Gender, stereotype threat, and anxiety: Psychophysiological and cognitive evidence. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.investigacion-psicopedagogica.org/revista/articulos/8/english/Art_8_84.pdf A study was done in which two groups took the verbal portion of a standard graduate entrance exam. Each group was comprised of a mix of Black and White high-achieving students at Stanford University. One group was told the test did not measure intellect, and the other was told that it did. The Black students in the former group scored significantly higher than Black students in the latter group. For Whites, the opposite was true (Haslam, Salvatore, Kessler, & Reicher, 2008). Haslam, S. A., Salvatore, J., Kessler, T., & Reicher, S. D. (2008). The social psychology of success. Scientific American Mind, May/April, 24–31. Although negative stereotypes (threats) can induce failure and poor performance, positive stereotypes (lifts) can induce success. Stereotypes such as “All Asians are good at math,” or “Black people are better at sports” can produce positive results for these groups (Haslam, Salvatore, Kessler, & Reicher, 2008; Osborne, 2006). Haslam, S. A., Salvatore, J., Kessler, T., & Reicher, S. D. (2008). The social psychology of success. Scientific American Mind, May/April, 24–31.; Osborne, J. W. (2006). Gender, stereotype threat, and anxiety: Psychophysiological and cognitive evidence. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.investigacion-psicopedagogica.org/revista/articulos/8/english/Art_8_84.pdf In one study, three groups of Asian women were given a math test. One group was reminded of the stereotype threat that women do worse than men in math. Another group was told nothing. The third group was reminded of the stereotype lift that Asians perform better at math than any other demographic group. The first group performed the worst on the test, and the third group performed the best. The differences were significant (Haslam, Salvatore, Kessler, & Reicher, 2008) Haslam, S. A., Salvatore, J., Kessler, T., & Reicher, S. D. (2008). The social psychology of success. Scientific American Mind, May/April, 24–31. To remove stereotype threats, affected groups can work together to challenge the legitimacy of the threat and replace it with group pride (Haslam, Salvatore, Kessler, & Reicher, 2008; Stroessner & Good, 2008a). Haslam, S. A., Salvatore, J., Kessler, T., & Reicher, S. D. (2008). The social psychology of success. Scientific American Mind, May/April, 24–31.; Stroessner, S., & Good, C. (2008). What is stereotype threat? Reducingstereotype.org. Retrieved from http://reducingstereotypethreat.org/definition.html The percentages of students of color (Black and Latino) who perform in the top academic achievement quartile is low; only 1 in 17 Blacks and 1 in 9 Latinos are in this quartile. The actual numbers are very high, yet too often these high-achievers are overlooked and don’t receive the attention and support that their white counterparts receive (Bromberg & Theokas, 2014). Bromberg, M., & Theokas, C. (2014). Falling out of the lead: Following high achievers through high school and beyond. Education Trust: Shattering Expectation Series. Washington D.C. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/publications/files/FallingOutoftheLead.pdf High-achievers, regardless of race or socioeconomic status, take similar course loads in high school, unless they attend schools offering advanced courses like calculus. In these schools, access to the advanced courses is more restricted for Black and Latino high-achievers and high achievers from the low socioeconomic group (Bromberg & Theokas, 2014). Bromberg, M., & Theokas, C. (2014). Falling out of the lead: Following high achievers through high school and beyond. Education Trust: Shattering Expectation Series. Washington D.C. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/publications/files/FallingOutoftheLead.pdf At schools that offer calculus, on average, 26% of high-achieving Black students will enroll and 38% of high-achieving white students will enroll. Also, 36% of high-achieving low-income students will enroll, compared to 45% of high-income students (Bromberg & Theokas, 2014). Bromberg, M., & Theokas, C. (2014). Falling out of the lead: Following high achievers through high school and beyond. Education Trust: Shattering Expectation Series. Washington D.C. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/publications/files/FallingOutoftheLead.pdf High-achieving white and high-socioeconomic status students are twice as likely to take the SAT or ACT than are high-achieving Black, Latino, and low-socioeconomic status students (Bromberg & Theokas, 2014). Bromberg, M., & Theokas, C. (2014). Falling out of the lead: Following high achievers through high school and beyond. Education Trust: Shattering Expectation Series. Washington D.C. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/publications/files/FallingOutoftheLead.pdf Teachers assign lower grades to high-achieving students of color and low-SES students than they do to high-achieving white and high-SES students. Some research suggests that teachers perceive the behavior, work habits, and study habits of the former group to be worse than the latter group’s habits. Student-reported behavior and study habits don’t support this perception. A 2007 study found that the teachers’ misperception accounted for most of the gap in GPAs among races in the high-achieving students (Bromberg & Theokas, 2014). Bromberg, M., & Theokas, C. (2014). Falling out of the lead: Following high achievers through high school and beyond. Education Trust: Shattering Expectation Series. Washington D.C. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/publications/files/FallingOutoftheLead.pdf In 2012, among 15-year-olds who participated in mathematics, science, and reading literacy through the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), 9% of students from the United States scored in the two highest levels of math proficiency. Among U. S. students from schools with less than 10% of students receiving free/reduced-price lunches, however, 22% of students were among the top scorers (Kelly et al., 2013). Kelly, D., Xie, H., Nord, C. W., Jenkins, F., Chan, J. Y., & Kastberg, D. (2013). Performance of U.S. 15-year-old students in mathematics, science, and reading literacy in an international context: First look at PISA 2012. Washington D.C. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2014/2014024rev.pdf The sequence of math students take in middle school essentially determines their math track for high school. In North Carolina, this is true because of math prerequisites for higher level math (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, 2009). North Carolina Department of Public Instruction. (2009). Course and credit requirements. Retrieved from http://www.ncpublicschools.org/curriculum/graduation Wake County Schools identified the top ten and bottom ten middle school Algebra 1 teachers. Students entering these courses showed no statistical difference in their mean EOG math scores, although their paths through high school math differed significantly, beginning in 9th grade. In 9th grade, 97% of the student in the top performing Algebra 1 teachers' classes enrolled in Honors Geometry, compared with 77% of the students who had the worst performing Algebra 1 teachers. By 12th grade, 62% of the students who had top performing Algebra teachers enrolled in AP Calculus compared to 38% of the bottom performing Algebra teachers' students (Haynie, 2009). Haynie, G. (2009). High school mathematics course-taking patterns of middle school Algebra I students (Wake County Public School System E & R Report No. 08.31). Raleigh, NC: Wake County Public School System. Retrieved from https://www.wcpss.net/results/reports/2009/0822patterns_alg1.pdf Students from low-income households are disproportionately tracked to the least challenging classes. Although the tracking is allegedly done according to academic ability, in fact “perceived potential ability” also plays a role (Cratty, 2014) Cratty, D. (2014). Do 3rd grade math scores determine students’ futures? A statewide analysis of college readiness and the income achievement gap. Many students from high-income households begin third grade with lower math scores then their peers from low-income households, yet often the former surpass the latter by the end of the school year. This implies that school factors play a role in student achievement (Altonji & Mansfield, 2011; Curto, Fryer Jr., & Howard, 2011; Rothwell, 2012) Altonji, J. G., & Mansfield, R. K. (2011). The role of family, school and community characteristics in inequality in education and labor market outcomes. In G. J. Duncan & R. J. Murnane (Eds.), Wither opportunity? Rising inequality, schools, and children’s life chances (pp. 339–358). New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?id=mF_me7HYyHcC&pg=PA339&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false Although gifted programs are usually reserved for only the top-scoring students, in North Carolina, the AIG program serves about 25% of students, including many who have demonstrated average academic performance (Cratty, 2014). Cratty, D. (2014). Do 3rd grade math scores determine students’ futures? A statewide analysis of college readiness and the income achievement gap. Students from low socioeconomic backgrounds who, through lotteries or public housing vouchers, are given the opportunity to attend schools in high-income neighborhoods, are nonetheless usually placed in the lowest math classes and denied access to programs and classes that could help them advance (Cratty, 2014). Cratty, D. (2014). Do 3rd grade math scores determine students’ futures? A statewide analysis of college readiness and the income achievement gap. Among students with similar academic abilities, parent education or high- to middle-income status is a greater predictor of student placement in advanced classes (Cratty, 2014). Cratty, D. (2014). Do 3rd grade math scores determine students’ futures? A statewide analysis of college readiness and the income achievement gap. A North Carolina study which examined the success rates of students who had eighth-grade Algebra I followed by Algebra II in ninth grade, and who had a 70% or greater probability of success going into eighth grade Algebra, 92% scored Level III or IV (at or above grade level) on their End of Course tests for Algebra II. The other 8% were in classrooms of Algebra II teachers who profile in the bottom 40% statewide for teacher effectiveness (SAS Institute, 2009). SAS Institute. (2009). Mathematics talent identification and reclamation in Moore County School District. Raleigh, NC. Achievement data are a better predictor of future achievement than are demographics (Finn & Finn, n.d.). Finn, M. T., & Finn, J. (n.d.). A look in the mirror (Entire article quoted in Traders Log by John Maudlin). Retrieved from http://www.traderslog.com/forum/showthread.php?t=1492 The advanced coursework students learn in high school is important for college admission and success. College admission officials are impressed with the advanced coursework, and the rigorous classes better prepare students for college (Bromberg & Theokas, 2014). Bromberg, M., & Theokas, C. (2014). Falling out of the lead: Following high achievers through high school and beyond. Education Trust: Shattering Expectation Series. Washington D.C. Retrieved from http://www.edtrust.org/sites/edtrust.org/files/publications/files/FallingOutoftheLead.pdf Two prevailing myths about learning math must be quashed for students to be afforded fair opportunities in math placement. The first myth is that math ability is innate, and those who have not displayed success must lack aptitude and will never be successful. The second is that race, gender, and ethnicity can be insurmountable barriers to success in math (Akos et al., 2007). Akos, P., Shoffner, M., & Ellis, M. (2007). Mathematics placement and the transition to middle school. Professional School Counseling. Retrieved from http://www.schoolcounselor.org/files/10-3-238 Akos.pdf Math and science scores have the highest correlation to graduation rates when compared to all other subjects (Lamm, Harder, Lamm, Rose, & Rask, 2005) Lamm, A., Harder, A., Lamm, D., Rose, H., & Rask, G. (2005). Risk factors affecting high school drop out rates and 4-H teen program planning. Journal of Extension. Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe/2005august/rb6.php In a large North Carolina school system, researchers found that students who had one or more risk factor (free or reduced lunch, LEP, or SWD) performed better when their teachers were confident that they could perform well (Baenen et al., 2006). Baenen, N., Ives, S., Lynn, A., Warren, T., Gilewicz, E., & Yaman, K. (2006). Effective practices for at-risk elementary and middle school students. Raleigh: Wake County Public School System. Researchers analyzed data to determine the effects of tracking on students with similar math abilities and found that when high average (C+) students are placed in low, middle and high tracked courses in middle school, the percentages who will successfully complete two college prep math classes in high school are 2%, 23% and 91%, respectively. This study shows that capable students who are placed in low tracks have a decrease in self-efficacy (Burris, Heubert, & Levin, 2006). Burris, C. C., Heubert, J. P., & Levin, H. M. (2006). Accelerating mathematics achievement using heterogeneous grouping. American Educational Research Journal, 43(1), 105–136 Teacher expertise is the single most important measurable predictor of student achievement, and accounts for 40% variance in student test scores (Darling-Hammond, 2010). Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The Flat World and Education: How America’s Commitment to Equity Will Determine Our Future. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Completion of challenging high school curriculum, more so than class rank, GPA, and test scores, remains as the greatest indicator of successfully earning a bachelor’s degree. The impact is even greater for Black and Latino students than any other group. In one study, 95% of the students who earned bachelor’s degrees were at minimum enrolled in: • 3.75 units (years) of English and math, with the highest level of math reaching calculus, pre-calculus or trigonometry • 2.5 units of science or more than 2 units of core lab science (biology, chemistry and physics) • More than 2 units of foreign languages and history/social sciences • One or more units of computer sciences • More than one Advanced Placement (AP) course (Adelman, 2006) Adelman, C. (2006). The toolbox revisited: Paths to degree completion from high school through college. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/research/pubs/toolboxrevisit/toolbox.pdf High rates of teacher and staff turnover can negatively affect school climate, which in turn increases the dropout rate (Ahn et al., 2008). Ahn, T., Wyant, C., Bonneau, K., & Owen, J. (2008). Dropout Prevention: Strategies for improving high school graduation rates: A briefing report prepared for the North Carolina Family Impact Seminar. Center for Child and Family Policy. Retrieved from http://www.familyimpactseminars.org/s_ncfis04report.pdf Low attendance during the first 30 days of 9th grade is a more powerful predictor than any 8th grade factor for failing 9th grade, including test scores, age and academic failure (Neild & Balfanz, 2006). Neild, R. C., & Balfanz, R. (2006). An extreme degree of difficulty: The educational demographics of urban neighborhood high schools. Graduate School of Education: GSE Publications, University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved from http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1025&context=gse_pubs Parental involvement in student tracking has been shown to have a strong, positive effect on student placement. Yet most parents are unaware of the placement process itself and its significance (Akos et al., 2007). Akos, P., Shoffner, M., & Ellis, M. (2007). Mathematics placement and the transition to middle school. Professional School Counseling. Retrieved from http://www.schoolcounselor.org/files/10-3-238 Akos.pdf Many educators tend to think of "parental involvement" as being high only in ways readily apparent to them, such as attendance at PTA meetings and school functions, acting as chaperones on field trips, communicating directly with school staff to advocate for their children, etc. Such thinking leads many educators to believe that parents who do not participate in these visible means of support don't care about their children's education. These children can then be thought of as being "at risk," which can lead to the students being treated marginally and relegated to lower track courses (Auerbach, 2007). Auerbach, S. (2007). From moral supporters to struggling advocates: Reconceptualizing parent roles in education through the experience of working-class families of color. Urban Education, 42(3), 250–284. Counselors should involve parents in the task of closing the gender gap in STEM courses through activities such as family technology nights and STEM career days (Burger & Sandy, n.d.). Burger, C. J., & Sandy, M. L. (n.d.). A guide to gender fair counseling for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Retrieved from http://www.vsgc.odu.edu/publications/gfb.pdf A recent North Carolina study compared two groups of the parents of middle school students. In both groups, the parents earned less than $30,000 per year. One group was given a brochure showing them their children could likely attend NC Community College, UNC at Chapel Hill, NC A&T, or Duke free of charge, with additional grants and scholarships to pay for books and living expenses. Actual costs (without scholarships) were also provided, to show what they were saving. The control group was not given the brochures. Afterward, the first group was far more likely to know the cost of college than was the control group (59% vs. 72%), to understand that many students pay far less than the published prices for college (65% vs. 43%), and to recognize that children from low-income families can attend college for free (68% vs. 44%) (The College Board Advocacy & Policy Center & The College Foundation of North Carolina, 2012). The College Board Advocacy & Policy Center, & The College Foundation of North Carolina. (2012). College is affordable: A pilot study. Retrieved from http://advocacy.collegeboard.org/sites/default/files/college-is-affordable-summary-9-6-12-final.pdf In North Carolina, students received remedial Supplemental Educational Services for a year with the goal of bringing them to grade level, despite the fact that most were already at or above grade level. (Eligibility was based on family income; academic ability was ignored.) A follow-up study of students who were Level III and IV before the services revealed that 11.1% of 3-5th graders scored below grade after being served compared with 2% of a comparable group who were not served. Among K-2 students who were Level III and IV before the services, 23% who were served scored below grade level compared with 8% of comparable students who were not served (Paeplow & Baenen, 2006). Paeplow, C., & Baenen, N. (2006). E & R Report No. 06.09: Evaluation of Supplemental Educational Services at Hodge Road Elementary School 2005-06. Raleigh. Retrieved from http://www.wcpss.net/evaluation-research/reports/2006/0609ses_hodge.pdf Middle school course placement affects achievement and course placement is strongly associated with social factors, not ability (O’Connor, Lewis, & Mueller, 2007). O’Connor, C., Lewis, A., & Mueller, J. (2007). Researching “Black” educational experiences and outcomes: Theoretical and methodological considerations. Educational Researcher. Retrieved from http://sociology.emory.edu/home/assets/documents/profiles-documents/lewis-researching-black-educational-experiences-outcomes-theoretical-methodological-considerations.pdf Kindergarten teachers perceive boys who are shorter to be less skilled in general knowledge, reading, and mathematics—despite the fact that test results indicated otherwise. The differences between actual academic ability and perceived academic ability were statistically significant. They also found that teachers judged minority and low-income students to be less skilled than their test results indicated, and shorter boys were erroneously judged even when they controlled for race and income (Smith & Niemi, 2007). Smith, J., & Niemi, N. (2007). Exploring teacher perceptions of small boys in kindergarten. Journal of Educational Research, 100(6), 331–335. Tracking has been described as “a backdoor device for sorting students by race and class.” Many researchers agree (Abu El-Haj & Rubin, 2009) Abu El-Haj, T. R., & Rubin, B. C. (2009). Realizing the equity-minded aspirations of detracking and inclusion: Toward a capacity-oriented framework for teacher education. Curriculum Inquiry , 39(3), 435–463. The historical origins of intellectual tracking and “gifted” labels begin in the United States at the turn of the twentieth century. Some social scientists became proponents of eugenics, the theory that some races, sexes and nationalities are inherently superior to others. Eugenics took root during a time of great migration from European nations to the United States. Some prominent educators also adhered to eugenic theory which led to beliefs about differential intelligence and resulted in grouping students in ways that funneled poor and working class youth into specific vocations (Darling-Hammond, 2010). Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The Flat World and Education: How America’s Commitment to Equity Will Determine Our Future. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Educators need to challenge belief systems that place blame for the academic achievement gap on factors outside the school. Instead of looking outward at poor neighborhoods, limited English proficiency, or assumed cultural deficits, educators can help shrink the gap by turning inward and examining their own beliefs, policies and practices (Singleton & Linton, 2006) Singleton, G., & Linton, C. (2006). Courageous Conversations About Race: A Field Guide for Achieving Equity in Schools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Young people who believe intelligence alone will enable them to succeed in school are often discouraged when the going gets tough as exhibited through: • Statements that imply having to work hard is a sign of low intelligence • Avoidance of difficult tasks or subjects altogether • Focusing more on appearing smart rather than the learning process • Becoming easily discouraged when making mistakes • Explaining a poor grade as a lack of their ability • Those who are quick to give up when effort is required (Dweck, 2007) Dweck, C. (2007). The secret to raising smart kids. Scientific American Mind, (December 2007), 37–43. Races and socioeconomic status are proportionately distributed across the special education categories that have organic, measurable causes (e.g., hearing impaired, blindness, physical disabilities, etc.) (O’Connor & Fernandez, 2006). When diagnoses are more subjective, however, the distribution is disproportionate; Black students are identified as mentally retarded 2.41 times more often than Whites. They are also more likely than Whites to be labeled “learning disabled” (1.13 times), and to be labeled emotional or behavioral disorders (1.68 times) (Blanchette, 2006). O’Connor, C., & Fernandez, S. D. (2006). Race, class, and disproportionality: Reevaluating the relationship between poverty and special education placement. Educational Researcher. Retrieved from http://www.aera.net/uploadedFiles/Publications/Journals/Educational_Researcher/3506/03ERv35n6_OConnor.pdf; Blanchette, W. J. (2006). Disproportionate representation of African American students in special education: Acknowledging the role of white privilege and racism. Educational Researcher. Retrieved from http://www.aera.net/uploadedFiles/Publications/Journals/Educational_Researcher/3506/06ERv35n6_Blanchett.pdf Some research suggests that student homework should not be given as much weight in standardized grading. The homework should be the practice in which students make their mistakes and learn from them so they can perform well on the tests (Friedman, n.d.). Friedman, S. J. (n.d.). Grading teacher’s grading policies (A guide for principals). Retrieved from http://www.leadrighttoday.com/uploads/9/4/1/6/9416169/principals_guide_to_grading.pdf Often students who have mastered none of the material get the same grade as students who have mastered 60% of the material and students who have mastered 90% of the material, yet have zeros for unfinished homework (London, n.d.) London, H. (n.d.). Do our grading systems contribute to dumbing down? Retrieved from http://www.middleweb.com/PrinGrdng.html Students will have a better understanding of their own level of competency if they know how others have scored on particular assignments or tests. Teachers may share with the students the average score, and perhaps list all the scores—keeping them confidential in the process (Friedman, n.d.). Friedman, S. J. (n.d.). Grading teacher’s grading policies (A guide for principals). Retrieved from http://www.leadrighttoday.com/uploads/9/4/1/6/9416169/principals_guide_to_grading.pdf Among low-income students, little is done to assess which are high achievers. Few programs are aimed at them, and their numbers are lumped in with “adequate” achievers in NCLB reporting. As a result, little is known about effective practices for low-income students (Wyner, Bridgeland, & DiIulio Jr., 2007) Wyner, J. S., Bridgeland, J. M., & DiIulio Jr., J. J. (2007). Achievement trap: How America is failing millions of high-achieving students from low-income families. Jack Kent Cooke Foundation, Civic Enterprises, LLC. Retrieved from http://www.nagc.org/uploadedFiles/Advocacy_and_Legislation/Equity_and_Excellence/Achievement_Trap (JKC).pdf “As expectations, opportunities, resources and access become equitable across all racial groups, the gaps close because all students are supported in the differentiated ways necessary to achieve success. It is our belief that the most devastating factor contributing to the lowered achievement of students of color is institutionalized racism, which we recognize as the unexamined and unchallenged system of racial biases and residual White advantage that persist in our institutions of learning” (Singleton & Linton, 2006) Singleton, G., & Linton, C. (2006). Courageous Conversations About Race: A Field Guide for Achieving Equity in Schools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. The special education classification of Learning Disabled (LD) is the fastest growing category, with a 30% increase between 1990 and 1999. Subcategories of LD exist, and classifications in these subcategories are correlated with income and race. The LD classifications that result in lower expectations, removal from the mainstream, and special education services are disproportionately lower income and minorities. The LD classifications that result in additional help in the mainstream, including rigorous, courses (such as additional time on tests) are disproportionately high-income White students. In fact, an increase from 16% to 40% of LD students attending college over the last 12 years is almost entirely accounted for by White LD students from families with incomes that exceed $100,000 per year (Reid & Knight, 2006). Reid, D. K., & Knight, M. G. (2006). Disability justifies exclusion of minority students: A critical history grounded in disability studies. Educational Researcher. Retrieved from http://www.aera.net/uploadedFiles/Publications/Journals/Educational_Researcher/3506/05ERv35n6_Reid.pdf “Ethnic minority students are at risk for school failure and show a heightened susceptibility to negative teacher expectancy effects” (Van den Bergh et al., 2010) Van den Bergh, L., Denessen, E., Hornstra, L., & Voeten, M. (2010). The implicit prejudiced attitude of teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 47(2), 497–527. The number of high-achieving lower-income students nationally is larger than the individual populations of 21 states (Wyner et al., 2007) -----------Wyner, J. S., Bridgeland, J. M., & DiIulio Jr., J. J. (2007). Achievement trap: How America is failing millions of high-achieving students from low-income families. Jack Kent Cooke Foundation, Civic Enterprises, LLC. Retrieved from http://www.nagc.org/uploadedFiles/Advocacy_and_Legislation/Equity_and_Excellence/Achievement_Trap (JKC).pdf Numerous researchers have described one form of structural racism in education as a failure to invest in high-quality teachers, curricula, and resources in high-poverty, urban schools. Poor educational opportunity in urban settings is a major factor in the overrepresentation in students of color in special education courses (Blanchett, 2009) Blanchett, W. J. (2009). A Retrospective examination of urban education: from Brown to the desegregation of African Americans in special education—it is time to “Go for Broke.” Urban Education, 370–388. Although STEM knowledge is particularly important to succeed in today’s technological world, studies show there is significant lack of access to algebra, geometry, biology, and chemistry for minority students (Hefling, 2014). Hefling, K. (2014, March 1). Disparities remain in America’s schools. Associated Press. Washington DC. Retrieved from http://www.bigstory.ap.org/article/disparities-remain-americas-schools Researchers have found that students who may be subjects of stereotype threats will perform better on tests if they believe the tests are not evaluating them. When teachers tell students the tests are evaluating the school rather than the students themselves, African American students performed better (Southern Poverty Law Center, 2010) Southern Poverty Law Center. (2010). How stereotypes undermine test scores. Retrieved from http://www.tolerance.org/activity/how-stereotypes-undermine-test-scores Researchers strongly recommend not asking students for race, ethnicity, or gender identity on tests. Although such questions may seem harmless, they will reinforce stereotype threats, increasing anxiety and hurting performance for students subject to the stereotype threats (Southern Poverty Law Center, 2010) Southern Poverty Law Center. (2010). How stereotypes undermine test scores. Retrieved from http://www.tolerance.org/activity/how-stereotypes-undermine-test-scores Researchers recommend cooperative learning techniques (group assignments) to reduce stereotypes. When students of different races, genders, and ethnicities work together on challenging projects, the anxiety of those subject to stereotype threats are reduced as all team members recognize the capabilities of the stigmatized students (Southern Poverty Law Center, 2010). Southern Poverty Law Center. (2010). How stereotypes undermine test scores. Retrieved from http://www.tolerance.org/activity/how-stereotypes-undermine-test-scores Distrust of settings in which social identity contingencies make people feel threatened not only affect performance, but the people who are threatened are likely to devalue the domain in which the threat takes place. For example, threatened females may decide higher level math isn’t so important and pursue careers that don’t involve math (Stroessner & Good, 2008). Stroessner, S., & Good, C. (2008). What is stereotype threat? Reducingstereotype.org. Retrieved from http://reducingstereotypethreat.org/definition.html Although some advocate “denial” to overcome disadvantages associated with stereotype threats, what is really needed is “removal” (Haslam et al., 2008) Haslam, S. A., Salvatore, J., Kessler, T., & Reicher, S. D. (2008). The social psychology of success. Scientific American Mind, May/April, 24–31. Although most people tend to think of stereotypes as fixed and impervious to change, studies show that they are not (Haslam et al., 2008). Haslam, S. A., Salvatore, J., Kessler, T., & Reicher, S. D. (2008). The social psychology of success. Scientific American Mind, May/April, 24–31. A mentor’s job is not to parent or act as an authority figure. Mentors should not threaten that they’ll stop meeting with their mentee if the mentee doesn’t do something (behave in school, earn better grades, etc.) (Garringer & Jucovy, 2008). Garringer, M., & Jucovy, L. (2008). Building relationships: A guide for new mentors. Retrieved from http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_345.pdf According to the Hamilton Fish Institute on School and Community Violence and the National Mentoring Center, the 10 most important pieces of advice for a successful mentor are: 1. Be a friend. 2. Have realistic goals and expectations. 3. Have fun together. 4. Give your mentee voice and choice in deciding on activities. 5. Be positive. 6. Let your mentee have much of the control over what the two of you talk about—and how you talk about it. 7. Listen. 8. Respect the trust your mentee places in you. 9. Remember that your relationship is with the youth, not the youth’s parent. 10. Remember that you are responsible for building the relationship. (Garringer & Jucovy, 2008) Garringer, M., & Jucovy, L. (2008). Building relationships: A guide for new mentors. Retrieved from http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_345.pdf Fun community activities mentors and mentees can do include such things as playing chess or a two-person sport, going bowling, shopping for food and cooking a meal, going to movies or watching television and discussing what you see, reading the same book and discussing it, going to a museum, taking a tour of the mentor’s workplace, and other fun things. Doing homework together should take place only occasionally (Garringer & Jucovy, 2008). Garringer, M., & Jucovy, L. (2008). Building relationships: A guide for new mentors. Retrieved from http://www.mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_345.pdf As of 2009, African American students make up 17% of student bodies in the United States, yet only 10% are placed in gifted classes. Similar figures for Hispanic students are 22% and 15%, respectively (Grissom & Redding, 2016) Grissom, J. A., & Redding, C. (2016). Discretion and disproportionality: Explaining the underrepresentation of high-achieving student of color in gifted programs. AERA Open, 2(1), 1–25. Students who are placed in gifted programs not only improve academically; their motivation, self-efficacy, engagement with learning, non-academic self-concept improve. Overall stress declines, as well (Grissom & Redding, 2016) Grissom, J. A., & Redding, C. (2016). Discretion and disproportionality: Explaining the underrepresentation of high-achieving student of color in gifted programs. AERA Open, 2(1), 1–25. When teachers are allowed input to gifted program assignments, students are more likely to be recommended if their race matches that of the teacher, i.e., Black students are more likely to be recommended by Black teachers, and white students by white teachers (Grissom & Redding, 2016). Grissom, J. A., & Redding, C. (2016). Discretion and disproportionality: Explaining the underrepresentation of high-achieving student of color in gifted programs. AERA Open, 2(1), 1–25.
